Publications

Objectives: The pathogenesis of fibromyalgia (FM), characterised by chronic widespread pain and fatigue, remains notoriously elusive, hampering attempts to develop disease modifying treatments. Mitochondria are the headquarters of cellular energy metabolism, and their malfunction has been proposed to contribute to both FM and chronic fatigue. Thus, the aim of the current pilot study, was to detect structural changes in mitochondria of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of FM patients, using transmission electron microscopy (TEM).Methods: To detect structural mitochondrial alterations in FM, we analysed PBMCs from seven patients and seven healthy controls, using TEM. Patients were recruited from a specialised Fibromyalgia Clinic at a tertiary medical centre. After providing informed consent, participants completed questionnaires including the widespread pain index (WPI), symptoms severity score (SSS), fibromyalgia impact questionnaire (FIQ), beck depression inventory (BDI), and visual analogue scale (VAS), to verify a diagnosis of FM according to ACR criteria. Subsequently, blood samples were drawn and PBMCs were collected for EM analysis.Results: TEM analysis of PBMCs showed several distinct mitochondrial cristae patterns, including total loss of cristae in FM patients. The number of mitochondria with intact cristae morphology was reduced in FM patients and the percentage of mitochondria that completely lacked cristae was increased. These results correlated with the WPI severity. Moreover, in the FM patient samples we observed a high percentage of cells containing electron dense aggregates, which are possibly ribosome aggregates. Cristae loss and possible ribosome aggregation were intercorrelated, and thus may represent reactions to a shared cellular stress condition. The changes in mitochondrial morphology suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction, resulting in inefficient oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, metabolic and redox disorders, and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, may play a pathogenetic role in FM.Conclusions: We describe novel morphological changes in mitochondria of FM patients, including loss of mitochondrial cristae. While these observations cannot determine whether the changes are pathogenetic or represent an epiphenomenon, they highlight the possibility that mitochondrial malfunction may play a causative role in the cascade of events leading to chronic pain and fatigue in FM. Moreover, the results offer the possibility of utilising changes in mitochondrial morphology as an objective biomarker in FM. Further understanding the connection between FM and dysfunction of mitochondria physiology, may assist in developing both novel diagnostic tools as well as specific treatments for FM, such as approaches to improve/strengthen mitochondria function.

Mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2) is currently one of the most enigmatic mitochondrial proteins. MTCH2’s ligand is the pro-apoptotic BID protein, and the love story between these two proteins involves the regulation of diverse cellular processes including apoptosis, energy metabolism, mitochondrial dynamics, and protein insertion into the mitochondrial outer membrane. This review offers an updated progress report of these two proteins and describes our hypotheses regarding their joint mechanism of action.

Fusion of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) is regulated by mitofusin 1 (MFN1) and 2 (MFN2), yet the differential contribution of each of these proteins is less understood. Mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2) also plays a role in mitochondrial fusion, but its exact function remains unresolved. MTCH2 overexpression enforces MFN2-independent mitochondrial fusion, proposedly by modulating the phospholipid lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), which is synthesized by glycerol-phosphate acyl transferases (GPATs) in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the OMM. Here we report that MTCH2 requires MFN1 to enforce mitochondrial fusion and that fragmentation caused by loss of MTCH2 can be specifically counterbalanced by overexpression of MFN2 but not MFN1, partially independent of its GTPase activity and mitochondrial localization. Pharmacological inhibition of GPATs (GPATi) or silencing ER-resident GPATs suppresses MFN2's ability to compensate for the loss of MTCH2. Loss of either MTCH2, MFN2, or GPATi does not impair stress-induced mitochondrial fusion, whereas the combined loss of MTCH2 and GPATi or the combined loss of MTCH2 and MFN2 does. Taken together, we unmask two cooperative mechanisms that sustain mitochondrial fusion.

Mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2) is a regulator of apoptosis, mitochondrial dynamics, and metabolism. Loss of MTCH2 results in mitochondrial fragmentation, an increase in whole-body energy utilization, and protection from diet-induced obesity. We now show using temporal metabolomics that MTCH2 deletion results in a high ATP demand, an oxidized environment, a high lipid/amino acid/carbohydrate metabolism, and in the decrease of many metabolites. Lipidomics analyses show a strategic adaptive decrease in membrane lipids and an increase in storage lipids in MTCH2 knockout cells. Importantly, all the metabolic changes in the MTCH2 knockout cells were rescued by MTCH2 re-expression. Interestingly, this imbalance in energy metabolism and reductive potential triggered by MTCH2-deletion inhibits adipocyte differentiation, an energy consuming reductive biosynthetic process. In summary, loss of MTCH2 results in an increase in energy demand that triggers a catabolic and oxidizing environment, which fails to fuel the anabolic processes during adipocyte differentiation.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.

Background Myocardial ischemia is a major cause of death in patients with renal dysfunction. In order to identify a key metabolite which may protect cardiac function following renal injury, we have recently performed a metabolomics profiling analysis of LV lysates and plasma samples derived from animals that underwent an acute kidney injury (AKI) 1 or 7 days earlier, versus sham-operated controls. The analysis revealed that the kynurenic acid (kynurenate, KYNA) metabolite levels are highly elevated in all tested experimental samples relative to control. Purpose We wished to analyze whether KYNA may protect cardiomyocytes' survival and cardiac function upon an ischemic event and if so, to characterize whether the protecting effect may be linked to better preservation of the cardiac mitochondria. Methods Cellular viability of H9C2 rat cardiac myoblasts grown under normoxic or anoxic conditions with or without KYNA was determined by flow cytometry following Annexin-PI staining. The mitochondrial structure of the cells was determined by live cell staining with green (FITC) and deep red (Cy5) mito-tracker dyes. The potential effect of the metabolite on cardiac function following acute MI was tested in a murine model by echocardiography followed by histological staining of the cardiac sections with Picro Sirius Red. Results KYNA given at 10 mM concentration hardly affected the viability of H9C2 grown under normoxia, however the metabolite rescued the viability of the anoxic cells by 63% and largely improved their mitochondrial structure. Moreover, KYNA diluted in the drinking water of post-MI animals (250mg/ml), highly enhanced their cardiac recovery compared to untreated-animals as determined by echocardiography and collagen staining. Conclusions 1. KYNA may represent a key metabolite absorbed by the heart following AKI. 2. KYNA can enhance cardiac cell viability following an ischemic event both in vitro and in vivo in a mechanism which is mediated, at least in part, by protection of the cardiac mitochondria. FUNDunding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Public grant(s) – National budget only. Main funding source(s): Weizmann Institute-Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center joint research grant KYNA's protection of cardiac cells

Structural mitochondrial abnormalities as well as genetic aberrations in mitochondrial proteins have been known in Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) , yet there is currently little data regarding the metabolic properties and energy production of MDS cells. In the current study we used state-of-the-art methods to assess OXPHOS in peripheral blood cells obtained from MDS patients and healthy controls We then assessed the effect of food supplements- Coenzyme Q10 and carnitine on mitochondrial function and hematological response .We show here for the first time that in low risk MDS there is a significant impairment of mitochondrial respiration in peripheral blood cells and this can be improved with food supplements. We also show that such myelodysplastic syndrome, mitochondria, oxidative phosphorylation, coenzyme Q10, seahorse XF analyzer. supplements lead to improvement in cytopenia's and quality of life.

Through a clustered regularly insterspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) screen to identify mitochondrial genes necessary for the growth of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells, we identified the mitochondrial outer membrane protein mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2). In AML, knockdown of MTCH2 decreased growth, reduced engraftment potential of stem cells, and induced differentiation. Inhibiting MTCH2 in AML cells increased nuclear pyruvate and pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), which induced histone acetylation and subsequently promoted the differentiation of AML cells. Thus, we have defined a new mechanism by which mitochondria and metabolism regulate AML stem cells and gene expression.

Mitochondria are considered highly plastic organelles. This plasticity enables the mitochondria to undergo morphological and functional changes in response to cellular demands. Stem cells also need to remain functionally plastic (i.e. to have the ability to "decide" whether to remain quiescent or to undergo activation upon signaling cues to support tissue function and homeostasis). Mitochondrial plasticity is thought to enable this reshaping of stem cell functions, integrating signaling cues with stem cell outcomes. Indeed, recent evidence highlights the crucial role of maintaining mitochondrial plasticity for stem cell biology. For example, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle metabolites generated and metabolized in the mitochondria serve as cofactors for epigenetic enzymes, thereby coupling mitochondrial metabolism and transcriptional regulation. Another layer of mitochondrial plasticity has emerged, pointing toward mitochondrial dynamics in regulating stem cell fate decisions. Imposing imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics by manipulating the expression levels of the key molecular regulators of this process influences cellular outcomes by changing the nuclear transcriptional program. Moreover, reactive oxygen species have also been shown to play an important role in regulating transcriptional profiles in stem cells. In this review, we focus on recent findings demonstrating that mitochondria are essential regulators of stem cell activation and fate decisions. We also discuss the suggested mechanisms and alternative routes for mitochondria-to-nucleus communications.

Tafazzin (TAZ) is a mitochondrial transacylase that remodels the mitochondrial cardiolipin into its mature form. Through a CRISPR screen, we identified TAZ as necessary for the growth and viability of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. Genetic inhibition of TAZ reduced stemness and increased differentiation of AML cells both in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, knockdown of TAZ did not impair normal hematopoiesis under basal conditions. Mechanistically, inhibition of TAZ decreased levels of cardiolipin but also altered global levels of intracellular phospholipids, including phosphatidylserine, which controlled AML stemness and differentiation by modulating toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. Seneviratne et al. performed a CRISPR screen and identified tafazzin (TAZ) as important for the growth of leukemia cells. The inhibition of TAZ specifically reduced the stemness of leukemia cells by increasing phosphatidylserine levels and activating toll-like receptor signaling.

The role of mitochondria dynamics and its molecular regulators remains largely unknown during naive-to-primed pluripotent cell interconversion. Here we report that mitochondrial MTCH2 is a regulator of mitochondrial fusion, essential for the naive-to-primed interconversion of murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs). During this interconversion, wild-type ESCs elongate their mitochondria and slightly alter their glutamine utilization. In contrast, MTCH2(-/-) ESCs fail to elongate their mitochondria and to alter their metabolism, maintaining high levels of histone acetylation and expression of naive pluripotency markers. Importantly, enforced mitochondria elongation by the pro-fusion protein Mitofusin (MFN) 2 or by a dominant negative form of the pro-fission protein dynamin-related protein (DRP) 1 is sufficient to drive the exit from naive pluripotency of both MTCH2(-/-) and wild-type ESCs. Taken together, our data indicate that mitochondria elongation, governed by MTCH2, plays a critical role and constitutes an early driving force in the naive-to-primed pluripotency interconversion of murine ESCs.

Mitochondrial Carrier Homolog 2 (MTCH2) acts as a receptor for the BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (BID) in the mitochondrial outer membrane. Loss of MTCH2 affects mitochondria energy metabolism and function. MTCH2 forebrain conditional KO (MTCH2 BKO) display a deficit in hippocampus-dependent cognitive functions. Here we study age-related MTCH2 BKO behavioral and electrophysiological aspects of hippocampal functions. MTCH2 BKO exhibit impaired spatial but not motor learning and an impairment in long-term potentiation (LTP) in hippocampal slices. Moreover, MTCH2 BKO express an increase in activated microglia, in addition to a reduction in neuron density in the hippocampus, but do not express amyloid-beta plaques or neurofibrillary tangles. These results highlight the role of mitochondria in the normal hippocampus-dependent memory formation. (C) 2018 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Over the past decade, the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death (NCCD) has formulated guidelines for the definition and interpretation of cell death from morphological, biochemical, and functional perspectives. Since the field continues to expand and novel mechanisms that orchestrate multiple cell death pathways are unveiled, we propose an updated classification of cell death subroutines focusing on mechanistic and essential (as opposed to correlative and dispensable) aspects of the process. As we provide molecularly oriented definitions of terms including intrinsic apoptosis, extrinsic apoptosis, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-driven necrosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, parthanatos, entotic cell death, NETotic cell death, lysosome-dependent cell death, autophagy-dependent cell death, immunogenic cell death, cellular senescence, and mitotic catastrophe, we discuss the utility of neologisms that refer to highly specialized instances of these processes. The mission of the NCCD is to provide a widely accepted nomenclature on cell death in support of the continued development of the field.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is one of the most prevalent metabolic disorders and it tightly associates with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Reduced mitochondrial lipid oxidation contributes to hepatic fatty acid accumulation. Here, we show that the Fas cell surface death receptor (Fas/CD95/Apo-1) regulates hepatic mitochondrial metabolism. Hepatic Fas overexpression in chow-fed mice compromises fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial respiration, and the abundance of mitochondrial respiratory complexes promoting hepatic lipid accumulation and insulin resistance. In line, hepatocyte-specific ablation of Fas improves mitochondrial function and ameliorates high-fat-diet-induced hepatic steatosis, glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance. Mechanistically, Fas impairs fatty acid oxidation via the BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (BID). Mice with genetic or pharmacological inhibition of BID are protected from Fas-mediated impairment of mitochondrial oxidation and hepatic steatosis. We suggest Fas as a potential novel therapeutic target to treat obesity-associated fatty liver and insulin resistance.

The BCL-2 family proteins are major regulators of the apoptosis process, but the mechanisms by which they regulate this process are only partially understood. It is now well documented that these proteins play additional non-apoptotic roles that are likely to be related to their apoptotic roles and to provide important clues to cracking their mechanisms of action. It seems that these non-apoptotic roles are largely related to the activation of cellular survival pathways designated to maintain or regain cellular survival, but, if unsuccessful, will switch over into a pro-apoptotic mode. These non-apoptotic roles span a wide range of processes that include the regulation of mitochondrial physiology (metabolism, electron transport chain, morphology, permeability transition), endoplasmic reticulum physiology (calcium homeostasis, unfolded protein response (UPR)), nuclear processes (cell cycle, DNA damage response (DDR)), whole-cell metabolism (glucose and lipid), and autophagy. Here we review all these different non-apoptotic roles, make an attempt to link them to the apoptotic roles, and present many open questions for future research directions in this fascinating field.

Mitochondrial Carrier Homolog 2 (MTCH2) is a novel regulator of mitochondria metabolism, which was recently associated with Alzheimer's disease. Here we demonstrate that deletion of forebrain MTCH2 increases mitochondria and whole-body energy metabolism, increases locomotor activity, but impairs motor coordination and balance. Importantly, mice deficient in forebrain MTCH2 display a deficit in hippocampus-dependent cognitive functions, including spatial memory, long term potentiation (LTP) and rates of spontaneous excitatory synaptic currents. Moreover, MTCH2-deficient hippocampal neurons display a deficit in mitochondria motility and calcium handling. Thus, MTCH2 is a critical player in neuronal cell biology, controlling mitochondria metabolism, motility and calcium buffering to regulate hippocampal-dependent cognitive functions.

Objective: More than one-third of U.S. adults have obesity, causing an alarming increase in obesity-related comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes. The functional role of mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2), a human obesity-associated gene, in lipid homeostasis was investigated in Caenorhabditis elegans, cell culture, and mice.Methods: In C. elegans, MTCH2/MTCH-1 was depleted, using RNAi and a genetic mutant, and overexpressed to assess its effect on lipid accumulation. In cells and mice, shRNAs against MTCH2 were used for knockdown and MTCH2 overexpression vectors were used for overexpression to study the role of this gene in fat accumulation.Results: MTCH2 knockdown reduced lipid accumulation in adipocyte-like cells in vitro and in C. elegans and mice in vivo. MTCH2 overexpression increased fat accumulation in cell culture, C. elegans, and mice. Acute MTCH2 inhibition reduced fat accumulation in animals subjected to a high-fat diet. Finally, MTCH2 influenced estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) activity.Conclusions: MTCH2 is a conserved regulator of lipid homeostasis. MTCH2 was found to be both required and sufficient for lipid homeostasis shifts, suggesting that pharmacological inhibition of MTCH2 could be therapeutic for treatment of obesity and related disorders. MTCH2 could influence lipid homeostasis through inhibition of ESR1 activity.

The BCL-2 family proteins are major regulators of apoptosis, and one of their major sites of action are the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the cellular hubs for metabolism and indeed selected BCL-2 family proteins also possess roles related to mitochondria metabolism and dynamics. Here we discuss the link between mitochondrial metabolism/dynamics and the fate of stem cells, with an emphasis on the role of the BID-MTCH2 pair in regulating this link. We also discuss the possibility that BCL-2 family proteins act as metabolic sensors/messengers coming on and off of mitochondria to "sample" the cytosol and provide the mitochondria with up-to-date metabolic information. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'EBEC 2016: 19th European Bioenergetics Conference, Riva del Garda, Italy, July 2-6, 2016', edited by Prof. Paolo Bernardi.

Mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2) is a repressor of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), and its locus is associated with increased BMI in humans. Here, we demonstrate that mice deficient in muscle MTCH2 are protected from diet-induced obesity and hyperinsulinemia and that they demonstrate increased energy expenditure. Deletion of muscle MTCH2 also increases mitochondrial OXPHOS and mass, triggers conversion from glycolytic to oxidative fibers, increases capacity for endurance exercise, and increases heart function. Moreover, metabolic profiling of mice deficient in muscle MTCH2 reveals a preference for carbohydrate utilization and an increase in mitochondria and glycolytic flux in muscles. Thus, MTCH2 is a critical player in muscle biology, modulating metabolism and mitochondria mass as well as impacting whole-body energy homeostasis.

Apoptosis is critical for maintaining tissue homeostasis, and apoptosis evasion is considered as a hallmark of cancer. However, increasing evidence also suggests that proapoptotic molecules can contribute to the development of cancer, including liver cancer. The aim of this study was to further clarify the role of the proapoptotic B-cell lymphoma 2 homology domain 3 (BH3)-only protein BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (BID) for chronic liver injury (CLI) and hepatocarcinogenesis (HCG). Loss of BID significantly delayed tumor development in two mouse models of Fah-mediated and HBsTg-driven HCG, suggesting a tumor-promoting effect of BID. Liver injury as well as basal and mitogen-stimulated hepatocyte proliferation were not modulated by BID. Moreover, there was no in vivo or in vitro evidence that BID was involved in DNA damage response in hepatocytes and hepatoma cells. Our data revealed that CLI was associated with strong activation of oxidative stress (OS) response and that BID impaired full activation of p38 after OS. Conclusion: We provide evidence that the tumor-promoting function of BID in CLI is not related to enhanced proliferation or an impaired DNA damage response. In contrast, BID suppresses p38 activity and facilitates malignant transformation of hepatocytes. (Hepatology 2015;62:816-828).

The metabolic state of stem cells is emerging as an important determinant of their fate. In the bone marrow, haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) entry into cycle, triggered by an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), corresponds to a critical metabolic switch from glycolysis to mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Here we show that loss of mitochondrial carrier homologue 2 (MTCH2) increases mitochondrial OXPHOS, triggering HSC and progenitor entry into cycle. Elevated OXPHOS is accompanied by an increase in mitochondrial size, increase in ATP and ROS levels, and protection from irradiation-induced apoptosis. In contrast, a phosphorylation-deficient mutant of BID, MTCH2 s ligand, induces a similar increase in OXPHOS, but with higher ROS and reduced ATP levels, and is associated with hypersensitivity to irradiation. Thus, our results demonstrate that MTCH2 is a negative regulator of mitochondrial OXPHOS downstream of BID, indispensible in maintaining HSC homeostasis.

Living organisms require a constant supply of safe and efficient energy to maintain homeostasis and to allow locomotion of single cells, tissues and the entire organism. The source of energy can be glycolysis, a simple series of enzymatic reactions in the cytosol, or a much more complex process in the mitochondria, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). In this review we will examine how does the organism balance its source of energy in two seemingly distinct and unrelated processes: hematopoiesis and exercise. In both processes we will show the importance of the metabolic program and its regulation. We will also discuss the importance of oxygen availability not as a sole determinant, but in the context of the nutrient and cellular state, and address the emerging role of lactate as an energy source and signaling molecule in health and disease.

Cells deficient in mitochondrial fusion have been shown to have defects linked to the exchange of inner membrane and matrix components. Because outer-mitochondrial membrane (OMM) constituents insert directly from the cytoplasm, a role for fusion in theirintermitochondrial transfer was unanticipated. Here,we show that fibroblasts lacking the GTPases responsible for OMM fusion, mitofusins 1 and 2 (MFN1 and MFN2), display more heterogeneous distribution of OMM proteins. Proteins with different modes of OMM association display varying degrees of heterogeneity in Mfn1/2^-/- cells and different kinetics of transfer during fusion in fusion-competent cells. Proapoptotic Bak exhibits marked heterogeneity, which is normalized upon expression of MFN2. Bak is critical for Bid-induced OMM permeabilization and cytochrome c release, and Mfn1/2^-/- cells show dysregulation of Bid-dependent apoptotic signaling. Bid sensitivity of Bak-deficient mitochondria is regained upon fusion with Bak-containing mitochondria. Thus, OMM protein distribution depends on mitochondrial fusion and is a locus of apoptotic dysfunction in conditions of fusion deficiency.

The BH3-only Bid protein is a critical sentinel of cellular stress in the liver and the hematopoietic system. Bid's initial 'claim to fame' came from its ability - as a caspase-truncated product - to trigger the mitochondrial apoptotic program following death receptor activation. Today we know that Bid can response to multiple types of proteases, which are activated under different conditions such as T-cell activation, ischemical reperfusion injury and lysosomal injury. Activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic program by Bid - via its recently identified receptor mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 - involves multiple mechanisms, including release of cytochrome c and second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (Smac), alteration of mitochondrial cristae organization, generation of reactive oxygen species and engagement of the permeability transition pore. Bid is also emerging - in its full-length form - as a pivotal sentinel of DNA damage in the bone marrow regulated by the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)/ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) kinases. The ATM/ATR-Bid pathway is critically involved in preserving the quiescence and survival of hematopoietic stem cells both in the absence and presence of external stress, and a large part of this review will be dedicated to recent advances in this area of research.

Background: tBid is a Bcl-2 family protein that promotes apoptosis at the mitochondria. Results: tBid undergoes a reversible conformational change at membranes before activation that is accelerated by Mtch2. Conclusion: The Mtch2 accelerated conformational change in membrane-bound tBid enables it to activate Bax. Significance: The conformational change in tBid is a novel potential site of apoptosis regulation.

Cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) are tightly regulated to prevent tissue damage. ROS also help to monitor different cell fates, suggesting that a 'ROS rheostat' exists in cells. It is well established that ROS are crucial for stem cell biology; in this review, we discuss how mitochondrial ROS influence hematopoietic cell fates. We also examine the importance in this process of BID and other BCL-2 family members, many of which have been implicated in regulating cell fates by modulating mitochondrial integrity/activity and cell cycle progression in the hematopoietic lineage. Based on this knowledge, we propose that selected BCL-2 proteins coordinate mitochondria and nuclear activities via ROS to enable 'synchronized' cell fate decisions.

Recent studies report mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2) as a novel and uncharacterized protein that acts as a receptor-like protein for the truncated BH3-interacting domain death agonist (tBID) protein in the outer membrane of mitochondria. These studies, using mouse embryonic stem cells and fibroblasts as well as mice with a conditional knockout of . MTCH2 in the liver, showed that deletion of . MTCH2 hindered recruitment of tBID to the mitochondria with subsequent reductions in the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins, mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and apoptosis. Sequence analysis shows that MTCH2 is present in all examined multicellular Metazoa as well as unicellular Choanoflagellata, and is a highly derived member of the mitochondrial carrier family. Mitochondrial carriers are monomeric transport proteins that are usually found in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where they exchange small substrates between the mitochondrial matrix and intermembrane space. There are extensive differences between the protein sequences of MTCH2 and other mitochondrial carriers that may explain the ability of MTCH2 to associate with tBID and thus its role in apoptosis. We review the experimental evidence for the role of MTCH2 in apoptosis and suggest that the original transport function of the ancestral MTCH2 mitochondrial carrier has been co-opted by the apoptotic machinery to provide a receptor and signaling mechanism.

BID, a BH3-only BCL2 family member, functions in apoptosis as well as the DNA-damage response. Our previous data demonstrated that BID is an ATM effector acting to induce cell-cycle arrest and inhibition of apoptosis following DNA damage. Here we show that ATM-mediated BID phosphorylation plays an unexpected role in maintaining the quiescence of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Loss of BID phosphorylation leads to escape from quiescence of HSCs, resulting in exhaustion of the HSC pool and a marked reduction of HSC repopulating potential in vivo. We also demonstrate that BID phosphorylation plays a role in protecting HSCs from irradiation, and that regulating both quiescence and survival of HSCs depends on BID's ability to regulate oxidative stress. Moreover, loss of BID phosphorylation, ATM knockout or exposing mice to irradiation leads to an increase in mitochondrial BID, which correlates with an increase in mitochondrial oxidative stress. These results show that the ATM-BID pathway serves as a critical checkpoint for coupling HSC homeostasis and the DNA-damage stress response to enable long-term regenerative capacity.

The molecular basis of the interaction between mitochondrial carrier homologue 2 (MTCH2) and truncated BID (tBID) was characterized. These proteins participate in the apoptotic pathway, and the interaction between them may serve as a target for anticancer lead compounds. In response to apoptotic signals, MTCH2 recruits tBID to the mitochondria, where it activates apoptosis. A combination of peptide arrays screening with biochemical and biophysical techniques was used to characterize the mechanism of the interaction between tBID and MTCH2 at the structural and molecular levels. The regions that mediate the interaction between the proteins were identified. The two specific binding sites between the proteins were determined to be tBID residues 59-73 that bind MTCH2 residues 140-161, and tBID residues 111-125 that bind MTCH2 residues 240-290. Peptides derived from tBID residues 111-125 and 59-73 induced cell death in osteosarcoma cells. These peptides may serve as lead compounds for anticancer drugs that act by targeting the tBID-MTCH2 interaction.

Alkylating DNA-damage agents such as N-methyl-N′-nitro-N′- nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) trigger necroptosis, a newly defined form of programmed cell death (PCD) managed by receptor interacting protein kinases. This caspase-independent mode of cell death involves the sequential activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), calpains, BAX and AIF, which redistributes from mitochondria to the nucleus to promote chromatinolysis. We have previously demonstrated that the BAX-mediated mitochondrial release of AIF is a critical step in MNNG-mediated necroptosis. However, the mechanism regulating BAX activation in this PCD is poorly understood. Employing mouse embryonic knockout cells, we reveal that BID controls BAX activation in AIF-mediated necroptosis. Indeed, BID is a link between calpains and BAX in this mode of cell death. Therefore, even if PARP-1 and calpains are activated after MNNG treatment, BID genetic ablation abolishes both BAX activation and necroptosis. These PCD defects are reversed by reintroducing the BID-wt cDNA into the BID cells. We also demonstrate that, after MNNG treatment, BID is directly processed into tBID by calpains. In this way, calpain non-cleavable BID proteins (BID-G70A or BID-Δ68-71) are unable to promote BAX activation and necroptosis. Once processed, tBID localizes in the mitochondria of MNNG-treated cells, where it can facilitate BAX activation and PCD. Altogether, our data reveal that, as in caspase-dependent apoptosis, BH3-only proteins are key regulators of caspase-independent necroptosis.

Cells undergoing apoptosis show a plethora of time-dependent changes. The available tools for imaging apoptosis in live cells rely either on the detection of the activity of caspases, or on the visualization of exposure of phosphatidyl serine in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane. We report here a novel method for the detection of mitochondrial events during apoptosis, namely translocation of Bax to mitochondria and release of cytochrome c (Cyt c) using bimolecular fluorescence complementation. Expression of split yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) fragments fused to Bax and Cyt c, resulted in robust induction of YFP fluorescence at the mitochondria of apoptotic cells with very low background. In vivo expression of split YFP protein fragments in liver hepatocytes and intra-vital imaging of subcutaneous tumor showed elevated YFP fluorescence upon apoptosis induction. Thus, YFP complementation could be applied for high-throughput screening and in vivo molecular imaging of mitochondrial events during apoptosis.

The BH3-only BID protein (BH3-interacting domain death agonist) has a critical function in the death-receptor pathway in the liver by triggering mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Here we show that MTCH2/MIMP (mitochondrial carrier homologue 2/Met-induced mitochondrial protein), a novel truncated BID (tBID)-interacting protein, is a surface-exposed outer mitochondrial membrane protein that facilitates the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria. Knockout of MTCH2/MIMP in embryonic stem cells and in mouse embryonic fibroblasts hinders the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria, the activation of Bax/Bak, MOMP, and apoptosis. Moreover, conditional knockout of MTCH2/MIMP in the liver decreases the sensitivity of mice to Fas-induced hepatocellular apoptosis and prevents the recruitment of tBID to liver mitochondria both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast, MTCH2/MIMP deletion had no effect on apoptosis induced by other pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members and no detectable effect on the outer membrane lipid composition. These loss-of-function models indicate that MTCH2/MIMP has a critical function in liver apoptosis by regulating the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria.

The BH3-interacting domain death agonist Bid has been shown to be critical for Fas-induced hepatocellular apoptosis. Furthermore, some studies have suggested that phosphorylation of Bid may determine its apoptotic function and may act as a switch to nonapoptotic functions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of Bid and phosphorylated Bid for Fas ligand (FasL)-induced apoptosis in murine livers. The monoclonal antibody Jo2 and a hexameric form of sFasL (MegaFasL) were used to induce apoptosis in wild-type, Bid-deficient (Bid(-/-)), Bid transgenic mice expressing a nonphosphorable form of Bid and Fas receptor-deficient lpr mice. Apoptosis sensitivity was determined in healthy mice and in mice following bile duct ligation, partial hepatectomy, or suramin pretreatment. As previously reported, loss of Bid protects mice against Jo2-induced liver failure. Remarkably however, Bid(-/-) mice are highly sensitive to MegaFasL-induced apoptosis. MegaFasL-treated Bid(-/-) mice showed a typical type I cell signaling behavior with activation of caspase-3 without Bax translocation to the mitochondria and no cytochrome C/Smac release into the cytosol. In contrast to previous in vitro findings, phosphorylation of Bid does not affect the sensitivity of hepatocytes to Fas receptor-mediated apoptosis in vivo. Conclusion: Our data suggest that Bid mainly amplifies a weak death receptor signal in quiescent and nonquiescent hepatocytes rendering the liver more sensitive to FasL-induced apoptosis. Thus, depending on the efficacy of Fas receptor activation, hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells can either behave as type I or type II cells. (HEPATOLOGY 2009;50:1558-1566.)

The membrane attack complex (MAC) of the complement system induces a necrotic-type cell death. Earlier findings suggested that Bcl-2 protects cells from MAC-induced necrosis. Here we examined the involvement of Bid, a proapoptotic protein, in MAC-induced cytotoxicity. Bid knockout (Bid-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) and primary fibroblasts were damaged by complement but to a significantly lower extent than wild-type (WT) fibroblasts. Bid silencing with small interfering RNA duplexes led to elevated resistance of mouse fibroblasts, human K562, and Jurkat cells to lysis by complement. Bid-/- MEF were also resistant to toxic doses of streptolysin O, melittin, and A23187. Analysis of complement protein deposition on fibroblasts demonstrated that less complement C3 and C9 bound to Bid-/- than to WT cells, even though expression of the membrane complement inhibitors Crry and CD59 was relatively reduced on Bid-/- cells. Bid was rapidly cleaved in WT MEF subjected to lytic doses of MAC. Pretreatment of the cells with the pan-caspase inhibitor z-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)- fluoromethylketone reduced Bid cleavage and cell lysis. These results indicate that complement MAC activates two cell death pathways, one involving caspases and Bid and one that is Bid-independent.

Cells frequently arrest or die in response to DNA damage to reduce the likelihood of progression to malignancy. A recent study sheds new light on the Aven protein, a known apoptotic regulator. After DNA damage, Aven induces cell-cycle arrest via ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) kinase activation. These findings add Aven to a growing list of apopototic regulators that function as double agents in the DNA-damage response.

The BH3-only BID protein acts as a sentinel to interconnect specific death signals to the core apoptotic pathway. Our previous data demonstrated that BID is important for both S-phase arrest and cell death following DNA damage, and that the cell cycle arrest function is regulated by its phosphorylation by the ATM kinase. We also showed that a portion of cellular BID localizes to the nucleus. Here, we demonstrate that etoposide and ionizing radiation induce the exit of BID from the nucleus and that leptomycin B, a specific inhibitor of the nuclear export receptor CRM1, prevents the nuclear exit of BID. BID carries a nuclear export signal (NES) consensus motif; however, it does not seem to be functional. To examine the importance of BID nuclear export, we targeted BID to the nucleus by fusing it to a strong nuclear localization signal (NLS). NLS-BID is phosphorylated in a similar time course as wild-type BID, but does not exit the nucleus following etoposide treatment. Importantly, introducing NLS-BID into BID^-/- cells failed to restore S-phase arrest and cell death in response to etoposide. These results implicate BID as a nuclear protein and raise the possibility that nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of BID is involved in regulating its activities in the DNA-damage response.

Mitochondria play a pivotal role in the process of apoptosis. Alterations in mitochondrial structure and function during apoptosis are regulated by proteins of the BCL-2 family, however their exact mechanism of action is largely unknown. Mitochondrial carriers and pores play an essential role in maintaining the normal function of mitochondria, and BCL-2 family members were shown to interact with several mitochondrial carriers/pores and to affect their function. This review focuses on the involvement of several of these mitochondrial carriers/pores in the regulation of the mitochondrial death pathway.

Atresia and luteolysis are well-documented processes in which most of the growing ovarian follicles and all corpora lutea, respectively, are eliminated by apoptosis. We have previously reported that LH and FSH enhance caspase-3 and -7 activity and apoptosis in the theca-interstitial cells of rat preovulatory follicles in culture. Here we have used cultured follicles to examine whether LH-induced caspase activation is related to the ability of LH to stimulate steroid production. In these studies, we used three inhibitors of enzymes involved in steroid production: aminoglutethimide and ketoconazole, acting on cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage (P450scc) located at the mitochondria, and epostane, acting on 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase located at the endoplasmic reticulum. We found that treatment with either aminoglutethimide or ketoconazole, but not with epostane, significantly reduced LH-induced caspase-3 and -7 activation and apoptosis, suggesting the mediation of LH-induced caspase activation by P450scc. Supplementing pregnenolone, the product of P450scc catalysis, to follicles treated with aminoglutethimide did not restore LH-induced caspase activation. On the other hand, treatment with antioxidants inhibited LH-induced caspase activation. Moreover, LH treatment was associated with an increase in reactive oxygen species which was inhibited by aminoglutethimide. Thus, P450scc catalysis results in an increase in reactive oxygen species, which in turn may trigger/facilitate caspase-3 activation. Finally, we found that in rat corpora lutea in vivo, an increase in steroidogenesis was accompanied by an increase in caspase activity. Thus, this study reveals a linkage between two seemingly distinct processes in which LH-induced caspase activation in cultured rat preovulatory follicles is coupled to mitochondrial steroidogenesis via P450scc.

Background: Bcl-2 homology domain (BH) 3-only proteins are pro-apoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family that couple stress signals to the mitochondrial cell death pathways. The BH3-only protein Bid can be activated in response to death receptor activation via caspase 8-mediated cleavage into a truncated protein (tBid), which subsequently translocates to mitochondria and induces the release of cytochrome-C. Using a single-cell imaging approach of Bid cleavage and translocation during apoptosis, we have recently demonstrated that, in contrast to death receptor-induced apoptosis, caspase-independent excitotoxic apoptosis involves a translocation of full length Bid (FL-Bid) from the cytosol to mitochondria. We induced a delayed excitotoxic cell death in cultured rat hippocampal neurons by a 5-min exposure to the glutamate receptor agonist N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA; 300 μM). Results: Western blot experiments confirmed a translocation of FL-Bid to the mitochondria during excitotoxic apoptosis that was associated with the release of cytochrome-C from mitochondria. These results were confirmed by immunofluorescence analysis of Bid translocation during excitotoxic cell death using an antibody raised against the amino acids 1-58 of mouse Bid that is not able to detect tBid. Finally, inducible overexpression of FL-Bid or a Bid mutant that can not be cleaved by caspase-8 was sufficient to induce apoptosis in the hippocampal neuron cultures. Conclusion: Our data suggest that translocation of FL-Bid is sufficient for the activation of mitochondrial cell death pathways in response to glutamate receptor overactivation.

Individual BCL2 family members couple apoptosis regulation and cell cycle control in unique ways. Antiapoptotic BCL2 and BCL-X_L are antiproliferative by facilitating G0. BAX is proapoptotic and accelerates S-phase progression. The dual functions in apoptosis and cell cycle are coordinately regulated by the multi-domain BCL2 family members (MCL-1) and suggest that survival is maintained at the expense of proliferation. The role of BH3-only molecules in cell cycle is more variable. BAD antagonizes both the cell cycle and antiapoptotic functions of BCL2 and BCL-X_L through BH3 binding. BID has biochemically separable functions in apoptosis and S-phase checkpoint, determined by post-translational modification. p53-induced PUMA is known only to have apoptotic function. Inhibition of apoptosis is oncogenic, whereas promotion of cell cycle arrest is tumor suppressive. Paradoxically, selected BCL2 family members can be both oncogenic and tumor suppressive. Which of the dual functions predominates is lineage specific and context dependent.

DNA damage leads to the activation of ATM and ATR, which in turn either cause cell cycle arrest and DNA repair or apoptosis. We have demonstrated that DNA damage leads to ATM-mediated BID phosphorylation, and that this phosphorylation regulates a novel, pro-survival function of BID important for S phase arrest. Thus, BID, a member from the core apoptotic regulatory machinery (BCL-2 family) receives direct inputs from a key regulator of the cell cycle arrest/DNA repair machinery (ATM), and therefore is an excellent candidate to coordinate genotoxic stress responses and apoptotic cell death.

The BCL-2 family of apoptotic proteins encompasses key regulators proximal to irreversible cell damage. The BH3-only members of this family act as sentinels, interconnecting specific death signals to the core apoptotic pathway. Our previous data demonstrated a role for BH3-only BID in maintaining myeloid homeostasis and suppressing leukemogenesis. In the absence of Bid, mice accumulate chromosomal aberrations and develop a fatal myeloproliferative disorder resembling chronic myelomonocytic leukemia. Here, we describe a role for BID in preserving genomic integrity that places BID at an early point in the path to determine the fate of a cell. We show that BID plays an unexpected role in the intra-S phase checkpoint downstream of DNA damage distinct from its proapoptotic function. We further demonstrate that this role is mediated through BID phosphorylation by the DNA-damage kinase ATM. These results establish a link between proapoptotic Bid and the DNA-damage response.

The "BH3-only" proapoptotic BCL-2 family members are sentinels of intracellular damage. Here, we demonstrated that the BH3-only BID protein partially localizes to the nucleus in healthy cells, is important for apoptosis induced by DNA damage, and is phosphorylated following induction of double-strand breaks in DNA. We also found that BID phosphorylation is mediated by the ATM kinase and occurs in mouse BID on two ATM consensus sites. Interestingly, BID^-/- cells failed to accumulate in the S phase of the cell cycle following treatment with the topoisomerase II poison etoposide; reintroducing wild-type BID restored accumulation. In contrast, introducing a nonphosphorylatable BID mutant did not restore accumulation in the S phase and resulted in an increase in cellular sensitivity to etoposide-induced apoptosis. These results implicate BID as an ATM effector and raise the possibility that proapoptotic BID may also play a prosurvival role important for S phase arrest.

BID, a proapoptotic BCL-2 family member, plays an essential role in the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)/Fas death receptor pathway in vivo. Activation of the TNF-R1 receptor results in the cleavage of BID into truncated BID (tBID), which translocates to the mitochondria and induces the activation of BAX or BAK. In TNF-α-activated FL5.12 cells, tBID becomes part of a 45-kDa cross-linkable mitochondrial complex. Here we describe the biochemical purification of this complex and the identification of mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (Mtch2) as part of this complex. Mtch1 is a conserved protein that is similar to members of the mitochondrial carrier protein family. Our studies with mouse liver mitochondria indicate that Mtch2 is an integral membrane protein exposed on the surface of mitochondria. Using blue-native gel electrophoresis we revealed that in viable FL5.12 cells Mtch2 resides in a protein complex of ca. 185 KDa and that the addition of TNF-α to these cells leads to the recruitment of tBID and BAX to this complex. Importantly, this recruitment was partially inhibited in FL5.12 cells stably expressing BCL-X_L. These results implicate Mtch2 as a mitochondrial target of tBID and raise the possibility that the Mtch2-resident complex participates in the mitochondrial apoptotic program.

BCL-2 family members are pivotal regulators of the apoptotic process. Mitochondria are a major site-of-action for these proteins. Several prominent alterations occur to mitochondria during apoptosis that seem to be part of the "mitochondrial apoptotic program." The BCL-2 family members are believed to be the major regulators of this program, however their exact mechanism of action still remains a mystery. BID, a pro-apoptotic BCL-2 family member plays an essential role in initiating this program. Recently, we have revealed that in apoptotic cells the activated/truncated form of BID, tBID, interacts with a novel, uncharacterized protein named mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (Mtch2). Mtch2 is a conserved protein that is similar to members of the mitochondrial carrier protein (MCP) family. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding BCL-2 family members and the mitochondrial apoptotic program and examines the possible involvement of Mtch2 in this program.

Apoptosis causes the elimination of ovarian germ cells and the atretic degeneration of ovarian follicles. Here we have used cultured rat preovulatory follicles to examine the regulation of effector caspase-3 and -7 in follicles undergoing apoptosis in the presence or absence of gonadotropins or IGF-I. Culturing follicles in the presence or absence of serum resulted in the induction of apoptosis of granulosa cells (GC), which was accompanied by effector caspase activation. Surprisingly, the addition of the survival factors LH or FSH, but not IGF-I, further increased caspase-3 and -7 activity. Immunohistochemistry studies of the LH- and FSH-treated follicles indicated that cleaved caspase-3 was predominantly localized to the peripheral theca-interstitial cells (TIC). Western blot analysis and caspase-3 and -7 activity assays of the separated follicular compartments confirmed that both LH and FSH treatments significantly enhance caspase-3 and -7 activity in TIC. The elevation in caspase-3 and -7 activity in TIC was accompanied by an increase in apoptosis. Interestingly, LH and FSH also induced an increase in caspase-3 and -7 activity in GC; however, this increase was accompanied by a decrease in apoptosis. Finally, we demonstrate that in freshly isolated preovulatory follicles and in antral follicles in intact ovaries, the expression level of procaspase-3 is significantly higher in TIC than in GC. Thus, LH and FSH have a dual effect on the cultured rat preovulatory follicle: an antiapoptotic effect on GC and a proapoptotic effect on TIC.

The proapoptotic activity of BID seems to solely depend upon its cleavage to truncated tBID. Here we demonstrate that expression of a caspase-8 non-cleavable (nc) BID-D59A mutant or expression of wild type (wt) BID induces apoptosis in Bid -/-, caspase-8 -/-, and wt primary MEFs. Western blot analysis indicated that no cleavage products appeared in cells expressing ncBID. ncBID was as effective as wtBID in inducing cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and apoptosis, ncBID and wtBID (nc/wtBID) were much less effective than tBID in localizing to mitochondria and in inducing cytochrome c release, but only slightly less effective in inducing apoptosis. Studies with Apaf-1- and caspase-9-deficient primary MEFs indicated that both proteins were essential for nc/wtBID and for tBID-induced apoptosis. Most importantly, expression of non-apoptotic levels of either ncBID or wtBID in Bid -/- MEFs induced a similar and significant enhancement in apoptosis in response to a variety of death signals, which was accompanied by enhanced localization of BID to mitochondria and cytochrome c release. Thus, these results implicate full-length BID as an active player in the mitochondria during apoptosis.

Activation of the tumor necrosis factor R1/Fas receptor results in the cleavage of cytosolic BID to truncated tBID. tBID translocates to the mitochondria to induce the oligomerization of BAX or BAK, resulting in the release of cytochrome c (Cyt c). Here we demonstrate that in tumor necrosis factor α-activated FL5.12 cells, tBID becomes part of a 45-kDa cross-linkable mitochondrial complex that does not include BAX or BAK. Using fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis and co-immunoprecipitation, we demonstrate that tBID-tBID interactions occur in the mitochondria of living cells. Cross-linking experiments using a tBID-GST chimera indicated that tBID forms homotrimers in the mitochondrial membrane. To test the functional consequence of tBID oligomerization, we expressed a chimeric FKBP-tBID molecule. Enforced dimerization of FKBP-tBID by the bivalent ligand FK1012 resulted in Cyt c release, caspase activation, and apoptosis. Surprisingly, enforced dimerization of tBID did not result in the dimerization of either BAX or BAK. Moreover, a tBID BH3 mutant (G94E), which does not interact with or induce the dimerization of either BAX or BAK, formed the 45-kDa complex and induced both Cyt c release and apoptosis. Thus, tBID oligomerization may represent an alternative mechanism for inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.

BCL-2 family members are pivotal regulators of the apoptotic process. Mitochondria seem to be a major site-of-action for these proteins. Several prominent alterations occur to mitochondria during apoptosis that include the release of intermembrane space molecules, changes in the membrane potential, ionic changes, and more. All these changes seem to be part of the mitochondrial apoptotic process. The BCL-2 family members are believed to be the major regulators of this program; however, their exact mechanism of action still remains a mystery. In addition, the exact contribution of mitochondria to the apoptotic process is still unclear. This review summarizes and examines the current knowledge regarding these two issues.