All events, All years

Wiring mechanisms in the mammalian somatosensory system

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, June 24, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Prof. Avraham Yaron
|
Dept of Biological Chemistry, WIS

During development, the basic wiring of the nervous system is established by connecting trillions of neurons to their target cells. To reach their correct targets, neurons extend axons that are guided by cues in the extracellular environment. The talk will describe our efforts to understand the mechanisms of axonal guidance using the somatosensory system as a model; with special focus on the role of the Semaphorins family of guidance cues in the process.

Grouping by synchrony and precise temporal patterns in the visual cortex: evidence from voltage-sensitive dye imaging

Lecture
Date:
Sunday, June 22, 2008
Hour: 10:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Dr. Hamutal Slovin
|
Bar Ilan University

Accumulating psychophysical and physiological evidence suggest the involvement of early visual areas in the process of visual integration and specifically in local facilitation of proximal and collinear stimuli. To investigate the early integration mechanisms at the population level, we performed voltage-sensitive dye imaging that is highly sensitive to subthreshold population activity, and imaged from the primary visual cortex (V1) and extrastriate cortex (V2) of a behaving monkey. The animal was trained on a simple fixation task while presented with collinear or non-collinear patterns of small gratings, Gabors or short oriented bars. Facilitation in terms of increased amplitude activity at the corresponding retinotopic site of the target was observed for low contrast targets presented as part of collinear or non-collinear pattern. The facilitation effect and its time course depended on the target flanker separation distance, suggesting the role of horizontal connections. Next, we compared the dynamics of cortical response. We found that the time course of responses increased faster in the collinear pattern as compared with the non-collinear pattern. Finally, to study synchronization, we calculated the spatial correlation of pixels at the target location and found that correlation was higher for the collinear pattern, suggesting that the neuronal code for collinear versus non-collinear pattern may be carried by synchronization and response dynamics rather than simply maximal amplitude of response. These results suggest that neuronal population activity in area V1 is involved in local visual integration processes, and specifically in the increased sensitivity for low-contrast visual stimuli surrounded by high contrast flankers. In the second part of my talk I will discuss repeating spatio-precise spatio-temporal patterns. Numerous studies of neuronal coding have reported precise time relations among spikes in cortical neurons. Here our main goal was to study whether information processing in the cortex involves precise spatio-temporal patterns and to detect and characterize those patterns among neuronal populations exploiting voltage-sensitive dye imaging (VSDI) in visual cortical areas of a fixating monkey. Our preliminary results demonstrate that spatio-temporal patterns do exist above chance level (p<0.0001). The spatial characteristics of those patterns are consistent with physiological studies regarding the interplay between different visual areas, and the temporal characteristics show that the majority of the patterns appear in a range of 10-20ms apart

Timing and the olivo-cerebellar system

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, June 17, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Prof. Yosef Yarom
|
Hebrew University of Jerusalem

The crystal-like anatomy and circuitry of the cerebellum and its preservation throughout vertebrate phylogeny suggest that it performs a single basic computation. It has been proposed that this basic computation is to create temporal patterns of activity necessary for timing motor, sensory and cognitive tasks. Despite the wide agreement about the involvement of the cerebellum in temporal coordination, there is an ongoing debate as to the neural mechanism that subserves this function. This debate stems from the current dogma that dominates cerebellar research. According to this dogma, PC simple spikes are evoked by input from granule cells and determine cerebellar nuclear (CN) activity, thus governing cerebellar output. The complex spikes, according to this view, serve as an error signal which is used by the system to readjust the simple spike activity. A novel theory of cerebellar function will be presented. According to this theory, the complex spike, rather than the simple spike, transmits the cerebellar output. The inferior olive generates accurate temporal patterns orchestrated by the cerebellar cortex and implemented in a variety of motor and non-motor tasks. Although this is a radical change of concept, it is well supported by experimental observations and it settles major problems inherent to the current dogma

Incubation of cocaine craving: behavioral and neuronal mechanisms

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, June 10, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Dr. Yavin Shaham
|
National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH

Abstract: Using a rat model of drug relapse and craving, we previously found time-dependent increases in cocaine seeking induced by exposure to drug cues after withdrawal from the drug, suggesting that cocaine craving incubates over time. In this lecture, I will first summarize our earlier behavioral and neurophysiological studies on incubation of cocaine craving. I will then discuss in more detail results from more recent studies implicating neuronal activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and glutamate synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens in the incubation of cocaine craving. I will also briefly address the relevance of our rat findings to the understanding of relapse to drug use in humans. Selected references related to incubation of cocaine craving Grimm JW, Hope B, Wise RA, Shaham Y (2001) Incubation of cocaine craving after withdrawal. Nature 412:141-142 Grimm JW, Lu L, Hayashi T, Su TP, Hope BT, Shaham Y (2003) Time dependent increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels within the mesolimbic dopamine system following withdrawal from cocaine: implications for incubation of cocaine craving. The Journal of Neuroscience 23:742-747 Lu L, Dempsey J, Liu S, Bossert J, Shaham Y (2004) A single infusion of BDNF into the ventral tegmental area induces long-lasting potentiation of cocaine-seeking after withdrawal. The Journal of Neuroscience 24:1604-1611 Lu L, Grimm JW, Hope BT, Shaham Y (2004) Incubation of cocaine craving after withdrawal: a review of preclinical data. Neuropharmacology 47(S1): 214-227 (invited review for a special issue commemorating 30 years of NIDA research) Lu L, Hope BT, Dempsey J, Liu S, Bossert JM, Shaham Y (2005) Central amygdala ERK signaling pathway is critical to incubation of cocaine craving. Nature Neuroscience 8:212-219 Shaham Y, Hope BT (2005) The role of neuroadaptations in relapse to drug seeking. Nature Neuroscience 8:1437-1439 (special issue on Neurobiology of Addiction) Lu L, Uejima JL, Gray SM, Bossert JM, Shaham Y (2007) Systemic and central amygdala injections of the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 attenuate the expression of incubation of cocaine craving. Biological Psychiatry 61:591-598 Koya E, Uejima J, Wihbey K, Bossert JM, Hope BT, Shaham Y (2008) Role of ventral medial prefrontal cortex in incubation of cocaine craving. Neuropharmacology (in press, for a special issue commemorating 35 years of NIDA research)) Conrad KL, Tseng K, Uejima J, Reimers J, Heng L, Shaham Y, Marinelli M, Wolf ME (2008) Formation of accumbens GluR2-lacking AMPA receptors mediates incubation of cocaine craving. Nature (in press)

Single- and Double-Opponent Neurons in Primary Visual Cortex, and Their Different Roles in Color Perception

Lecture
Date:
Thursday, June 5, 2008
Hour: 13:30
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Prof. Robert Shapley
|
Center for Neural Science, New York University

Surrounding colors have a great influence on color perception. The reason is that the neural mechanisms of color perception need to make computations that take into account the spatial layout of the scene as well as the spectral reflectances of the target surface, in order to make color perception stable when illumination changes. It is not known how the visual system integrates form and color but it is now widely believed that the primary visual cortex, V1, plays an important role. Therefore, it is important to understand the spatial properties of V1 color-responsive neurons. Our investigations (in collaboration with Drs. Elizabeth Johnson and Michael Hawken) of color-responsive neurons in macaque monkey V1 revealed that there are two distinct groups of color-responsive cells in V1&#8212;single- and double-opponent cells&#8212;that have different functions in color perception. For example, V1 double-opponent cells are orientation-selective for pure color stimuli while single-opponent color cells are not. Double-opponent cells are selective for the spatial frequency of pure color stimuli while single-opponent color cells are very broadly tuned. The different types of color-responsive V1 cells probably both contribute to linking form and color, but in different ways.

Pain Selective Anesthesia

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, June 3, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Dr. Alex Binshtok
|
Harvard Medical School, MA

Although pain is a complex entity, understanding the mechanisms of pain will reveal clues for better control. Perception of nociceptive, inflammatory and neuropathic pain - although initiated by distinctive mechanisms - all depend to some degree on generation and transmission of noxious signals by specific sets of primary sensory afferent neurons, nociceptors. Local anesthetics, by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, prevent the transmission of nociceptive information and therefore block pain. However, since all local anesthetics act non-selectively on all types of axons, they also cause a loss of innocuous sensation, motor paralysis and autonomic block. Thus, approaches that produce only a selective blockade of pain fibers are of great potential clinical importance. In my talk, I will present a novel method to selectively block pain sensation. Using capsaicin to activate the TRPV1 channel, the noxious thermo-sensitive transducer localized specifically to high-threshold nociceptors, we were able to introduce QX-314, a membrane impermeable and therefore clinically ineffective lidocaine derivative, into nociceptors, and thereby blocked their electrical activity. Neurons that did not express TRPV1 were not blocked by the combination of QX-314 and capsaicin. Injection of QX-314 and capsaicin in vivo together but not alone abolished the response to noxious mechanical and thermal stimuli, without any motor or tactile deficit. This approach could be used clinically to produce long lasting regional analgesia while preserving motor and autonomic function. In addition to applications for dental procedures, surgery and childbirth, this technique could also be used to diminish postoperative and cancer pain, as well as inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Moreover, using TRP channels as a &#8220;natural&#8221; drug delivery system will enable specific cationic drugs to be targeted only to those cells that express the TRP channel. This technique offers a new strategy for treating pain.

Signal processing in neuronal networks: new vistas for calcium and noise

Lecture
Date:
Monday, June 2, 2008
Hour: 14:00
Location:
Nella and Leon Benoziyo Building for Brain Research
Dr. Vladislav Volman
|
The Salk Institute

How neurons and neuronal networks perform signal processing tasks is one of the most important questions in neuroscience. Earlier research had focused on the integrative properties of individual neurons, and the role of activity-dependent inter-neuronal coupling remained obscure. We study the contribution of synaptic short-term plasticity to the detection, amplification, and storage of weak sensory stimuli in local neuronal circuits. Networks with fast plastic coupling show behavior consistent with stochastic resonance. Addition of slow asynchronous coupling mode leads to the qualitatively different properties of signal detection. Networks with asynchronous coupling also are able to hold information about the stimulus seconds after its cessation, thus representing a testable model of working memory, that is supported by experiments. Our results suggest a new, constructive, role in information processing for calcium-sustained synaptic &#8220;noise&#8221;.

Generation of dopamine neurons from embryonic stem cells for transplantation in Parkinson's disease

Lecture
Date:
Wednesday, May 28, 2008
Hour: 12:00
Location:
Nella and Leon Benoziyo Building for Brain Research
Prof Anders Bjorklund
|
Lund University, Sweden

Fetal mesencephalic tissue has been used as a source of dopaminergic neurons for transplantation in clinical trials with Parkinson&#8217;s disease patients and in animal models of Parkinson&#8217;s disease. Due to the poor availability of human fetal tissue, and the ethical concerns associated with the use tissue from aborted fetuses, further development of the cell replacement therapy will critically depend on the access to alternative sources of cells for transplantation, based on the use of stem cells as a source of dopaminergic neurons. The recent discovery of Lmx1a and Msx1 as key determinant genes of mesencephalic dopaminergic neuron fate during development (Andersson et al. 2006) has opened new possibilities to drive undifferentiated stem cells towards fully functional mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. Overexpression of these genes in stable embryonic stem (ES) cell lines is sufficient to generate neurons with almost 100% efficiency into a fully differentiated mesencephalic dopaminergic phenotype. The in vivo data obtained so far indicate that mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons can be generated in large numbers using this approach, and that they survive very well after transplantation to the striatum of 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned rats. In vivo, the Lmx1a- and Msx1-expressing cells develop into fully mature mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons, of both the A9 and A10 subtypes, and grow efficiently to form an extensive TH-positive axonal terminal network throughout the entire host striatum. Using this approach transplantable neurons with what appear to be a complete mesencephalic dopaminergic phenotype can be generated in large numbers from ES cell cultures.

Specialized mechanisms for face processing in the human brain

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, May 27, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Dr. Galit Yovel
|
Tel Aviv University

It is well established that faces are processed by specialized mechanisms. I will first review evidence for the existence of face-specific processing mechanisms from cognitive studies, functional MRI and electrophysiology (Event-related potentials). These methods provide complementary information about the way information is processed in the brain. It is therefore important to determine whether they all reflect the same mechanism. Our data show that face-selective fMRI markers are strongly associated with cognitive markers of face-selective mechanisms. Furthermore, a simultaneous fMRI-ERP study reveals strong associations between face-selective fMRI regions and event-related potentials. Based on these findings, I will propose an integrated theory on how, where and when faces are represented at early stages of visual processing.

Does urocotin 1 matter?

Lecture
Date:
Monday, May 26, 2008
Hour: 12:00
Location:
Nella and Leon Benoziyo Building for Brain Research
Prof. Tamas Kozicz
|
Dept of Cellular Animal Physiology Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands

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Astrocytes Regulation of Information Processing

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, April 1, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Prof. Eshel Ben-Jacob
|
Tel Aviv University

In the last decade, following many findings about Neuro-Glia interaction, the perception of glia has been reconsidered. This lecture addresses astrocyte regulation of synaptic information transfer. I will present a simple biophysical model for the coupling between synaptic transmission and the local calcium concentration on an astrocyte domain that envelopes the synapse. We found that the special interaction and feedback loop between the astrocyte and the synapse activity enables the astrocyte to modulate the information flow from presynaptic to postsynaptic cells in a manner dependent on previous activity at this and other nearby synapses. Thus, it can introduce temporal and spatial correlations in the information transfer in neural networks. I will show that astrocyte intracellular calcium dynamics in response to the synaptic information flow can encode information in amplitude modulations, frequency modulations and mixed modulations that, in turn, regulate the information transfer in later time. I will discuss the possibility that such regulation mechanisms might hint to the existence of new principles of information processing in neural networks yet to be deciphered. The models, analysis and results will be presented for multidisciplinary audience.

Neurobiology of Mood Disorders: A developmental perspective

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, March 25, 2008
Hour: 10:00
Location:
Gerhard M.J. Schmidt Lecture Hall
Prof. John Mann
|
Columbia University & The New York State Psychiatric Institute

Abstract: Past neurobiological models of mood disorders have not considered etiology or a developmental perspective. Recently enough data regarding candidate genes and the impact of adverse early experience has been published that the beginnings of a plausible and heuristically useful hypothetical causal model can be proposed. This talk will integrate known effects of susceptibility genes and childhood adversity in explaining the psychopathology and biological phenotype of major depression including data from postmortem studies and in vivo brain imaging.

Contrasting tuning properties of cortical and spinal neurons reveal distinct coding strategies

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, March 18, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Dr. Yifat Prut
|
Hebrew University Jerusalem

When executing volitional movements an externally defined target must be translated into internally represented muscle activation. We studied this process of extrinsic-to-intrinsic transformation by simultaneously recording activity from motor cortex and cervical spinal cord of primates. Preferred directions (PD) of motor cortical neurons were uniformly distributed while spinal PDs were biased in a manner consistent with enhanced representation of flexor muscles. Changes in PDs during hand rotation were used to assign an extrinsic or intrinsic coordinate frame to recorded neurons. During trial performance firing of motor cortical neurons gradually shifted from an extrinsic to an intrinsic representation of movement. In contrast, representation in the spinal cord was consistently intrinsic. Finally, at movement onset, connected corticospinal neurons expressed a transient alignment of directional tuning consistent with an increased cortical drive operating at this time. We suggest that motor cortical neurons contain a mixed representation of intrinsic and extrinsic parameters, whereas a consistent muscle-based command is obtained only at the spinal level via the termination pattern of corticospinal pathways or local segmental processing. Furthermore, spinal processing translates a phasic cortical command into a sustained muscle activation. (Joint work with Yuval Yanai, Nofya Adamit, Itay Asher, Ran Harel).

From c-Fos to extracellular matrix remodelling in synaptic plasticity, learning, memory and epilepsy

Lecture
Date:
Monday, March 10, 2008
Hour: 12:30
Location:
Wolfson Building for Biological Research
Prof. Leszek Kaczmarek
|
Nencki Institute, Warsaw, Poland

The last twenty years of intense research have provided convincing evidence for a role of regulation of gene expression in control of long-term neuronal plasticity, including learning and memory. Starting from our discovery&#8211;in late eighties&#8211;of c-fos activation in those phenomena, we have focused on correlating the expression of c-fos mRNA and c-Fos protein in various cognition-related brain structures with neuronal plasticity, learning and memory. The major conclusion from our studies, as well as those by the others, is that c-Fos and its functional form, AP-1 transcription factor, is the best correlate of learning processes, especially of a novelty of the behavioral information, whose processing constitutes the very foundation of the learning phenomenon. However, our understanding of exact biological function(s) of c-Fos/AP-1 still remains largely missing. Recently, an extracellular proteolytic system, composed of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases, TIMP-1 and matrix metalloproteinase-9, MMP-9, has emerged as a major AP-1 target in hippocampal neurons responding to enhanced neuronal activity. Structural remodeling of the dendritic spines and synapses is essential for synaptic plasticity, underlying learning and memory. Matrix metalloproteinases are pivotal for tissue remodeling throughout the body, especially during development. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) is an extracellularly operating enzyme that have recently been implicated in dendritic remodeling, synaptic plasticity, learning and memory (Szklarczyk et al., J. Neurosci., 2002; Nagy et al., J. Neurosci., 2006; Okulski et al., Biol. Psych., 2007). Furthermore, we have recently identified MMP-9 as a being produced, expressed and active at the synaptic contacts (Konopacki et al., Neuroscience, 2007; Michaluk et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2007; Wilczynski et al., J. Cell Biol. in press). Most recently, we have also found that MMP-9 plays a key pathogenic role in two animal models of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE): kainate-evoked-epilepsy and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) kindling-induced epilepsy. TLE is a devastating disease in which aberrant synaptic plasticity plays a major role Notably, we show that the sensitivity to PTZ-epileptogenesis is decreased in MMP-9 KO mice, but is increased in novel strain of transgenic rats, we have produced to overexpress MMP-9 selectively in neurons. Immunoelectron microscopy has revealed that MMP-9 associates with hippocampal dendritic spines bearing asymmetric (excitatory) synapses, where both the MMP-9 protein levels and enzymatic activity become strongly increased upon seizures. Further, we find that MMP-9-deficiency diminishes seizure-evoked pruning of dendritic spines and decreases aberrant synaptogenesis following mossy-fibers sprouting. The latter observation provides a possible mechanistic basis for the effect of MMP-9 on epileptogenesis. Our work suggests that a synaptic pool of MMP-9 is critical for the sequence of events that underlie the development of seizures in animal models of TLE.

Preattentive Processing of Sound Space

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, March 4, 2008
Hour: 12:15
Location:
Jacob Ziskind Building
Dr. Leon Deouell
|
Hebrew University Jerusalem

Space has a pivotal role in perception, attention, and conscious awareness. In particular, space may link information obtained through different modalities such as vision and audition. However, the cortical basis of spatial processing in the auditory modality remains elusive. Especially, there are several open questions about the degree to which space is encoded for sounds which are outside the focus of attention. I will discuss recent fMRI and ERP studies investigating this issue. Human fMRI studies suggest that a part of the planum temporale (PT) is involved in auditory spatial processing, but it was recently argued that this region is active only when the task requires voluntary spatial localization. I will describe a series of fMRI experiments that challenge this notion. This will be corroborated with studies of the mismatch negativity (MMN) event related potential involving spatial change detection. Having shown fine preattentive spatial auditory tuning, I will address conditions under which this process can be nevertheless suppressed.

Where but not what: The fusion of reafferent and exafferent inputs to perceive the location of objects

Lecture
Date:
Sunday, February 17, 2008
Hour: 11:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Prof. David Kleinfeld
|
UCSD

Sensory perception in natural environments involves the dual challenge to encode external stimuli and manage the influence of changes in body position that alter the sensory field. To examine mechanisms used to integrate sensory signals elicited by both external stimuli and motor activity, we use a mixture of psychophysics and electrophysiology to study rats trained to perform an active sensory task with a single vibrissa. We identify a nonlinear interaction between vibrissa touch and a motion-derived signal that dynamically labels each neuron with a preferred phase. The observed response enables the rodent to estimate object position in a head-centered reference frame. More generally, our result delineates a computation that is likely to occur in all active sensorimotor systems.

A hierarchy of temporal receptive windows in human cortex

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, February 12, 2008
Hour: 12:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Dr. Uri Hasson
|
New York University

Real-world events unfold at different time scales, and therefore cognitive and neuronal processes must likewise occur at different time scales. In the talk I will present a novel procedure that identifies brain regions responsive to the preceding sequence of events (past time) over different time scales. The fMRI activity was measured while observers viewed silent films presented forward, backward, or piecewise-scrambled in time. The results demonstrate that responses in different brain areas are affected by information that has been accumulated over different time scales, with a hierarchy of temporal receptive windows spanning from short (~4 s) to intermediate (~12 s) and long (~ 36 s). Thus, although we adopted an open-ended experimental protocol (free viewing of complex stimuli), we found that parametric manipulation of the temporal structure of a complex movie sequence produced lawful changes in cortical activity across different brain regions. In addition to the reliable cortical response patterns, I will also show that films exerted considerable control over the subjects' behavior (i.e., eye movements or galvanic skin responses). Finally, I will present few applications of this method for studying the neuronal correlates of complex human behaviors under more natural settings.

Information-theoretic analysis of neural data: why do it, why it is challenging, and what can be learned

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, February 5, 2008
Hour: 12:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Prof. Jonathan Victor
|
Cornell University

Entropy and information are quantities of interest to neuroscientists, because of their mathematical properties and because they place limits on the performance of a neural system. However, estimating these quantities from neural spike trains is much more challenging than estimating other statistics, such as mean and variance. The central difficulty in estimating information is tightly linked to the properties of information that make it a desirable quantity to estimate. To surmount this fundamental difficulty, most approaches to estimation of information rely (perhaps implicitly) on a model for how spike trains are related. But the nature of these model assumptions vary widely. As a result, information estimates are useful not only in situations in which several approaches provide mutually consistent results, but also in situations in which they differ. These ideas are illustrated with examples from the visual and gustatory systems.

Consequences of the uncertainty principle of measurement for perception and action

Lecture
Date:
Wednesday, January 30, 2008
Hour: 13:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Dr. Sergei Gepshtein
|
Brain Science Institute, RIKEN, Japan The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, USA

What can we learn from the octopus about the evolution of neural system for learning and memory?

Lecture
Date:
Tuesday, January 29, 2008
Hour: 12:00
Location:
Arthur and Rochelle Belfer Building for Biomedical Research
Dr. Binyamin Hochner
|
Hebrew University, Jerusalem

The octopus is an active hunter, a remarkable invertebrate whose complex behaviors rely on exceptionally good visual and tactile senses coupled with highly advanced learning and memory (LM) abilities. Studying the octopus LM system may therefore reveal characteristics universally important for mediation of complex behaviors. We developed slice and isolated brain preparations of the LM area in the octopus brain to characterize the short- and long-term neural plasticity. The importance of these processes for LM are been tested in behavioral experiments. The results support the importance of LTP in behavioral LM and suggest new ideas regarding the organization of short- and long-term memory systems.

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